Risk of rectal puncture due to needle entry into the presacral space: Importance of measuring the distance between the rectum and sacrococcyx, and the thickness of the sacrococcyx.

During ganglion impar block, the needle may approach the presacral space and the sacrum may be penetrated during caudal anesthesia. Because the rectum is in front of the sacrococcyx and is thus at risk for puncture, it is important to determine the distance between the sacrococcyx and rectum, as well as the thickness of the sacrococcyx.Computed tomography was used to measure the distance between the rectum and sacrococcyx, as well as the thickness of the sacrococcyx. The distances between the coccyx and rectum, sacrococcygeal joint and rectum, sacral level 5 ('sacrum 5') and rectum, and 'sacrum 4 to 5 junction' and rectum were measured. The results were compared based on the presence or absence of stools in the rectum. The thickness of the sacrococcyx was measured at the sacrum 4 to 5 junction and sacrococcygeal joint.In total, 1264 patients were included in this study. All distances were less than 1 mm in both males and females, with the exception of the distance between the coccyx and rectum in males. In both males and females, there was no significant difference in distance between the sacrococcyx and rectum according to the presence or absence of feces in the rectum, but there was a difference in the distance between sacrum 5 and the rectum in males (P = .048). Several male and female patients showed thicknesses of less than 5 mm at the sacrococcygeal joint.Some patients have a distance of less than 1 mm between the sacrum and rectum. Practitioners should exercise caution when applying a needle to the presacral space. If the sacrum is accidentally penetrated during caudal block, rectum puncture cannot be ruled out. Excretion of feces does not influence the distance between the sacrococcyx and rectum in females.

Fluoroscopic evaluation of the influence of needle gauge on epidural spread in caudal block.

Caudal block has limited injectate distribution to the desired lumbar level due to the relatively long distance from the injection site and reduction in the volume of injectate due to leakage into the sacral foramen. The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of needle gauge on fluoroscopic epidural spread and to assess the correlation between the spread level and analgesic efficacy in patients undergoing caudal block. We retrospectively analyzed data from 80 patients who received caudal block for lower back and radicular pain. We categorized patients based on the epidural needle gauge used into group A (23 gauge), group B (20 gauge), and group C (17 gauge). Fluoroscopic image of the final level of contrast injected through the caudal needle and pain scores before the block and 30 minutes after the block recorded using a numerical rating scale, were evaluated. Of the 80 patients assessed for eligibility, 7 were excluded. Thus, a total of 73 patients were finally analyzed. Age, sex, body mass index, diagnosis, lesion level, lesion severity, and duration of pain did not differ among the 3 groups. All patients showed cephalic spread of contrast. Contrast spread beyond L5 was seen in 26.9% of patients in group A, 41.7% in group B, 39.1% in group C, and 35.6% overall; there was no significant difference among the groups (P = .517). Analgesic efficacy was not significantly different among the groups (P = .336). The needle gauge did not influence the level of epidural spread or analgesic efficacy in caudal block.

Combined spinal/caudal catheter anesthesia: extending the boundaries of regional anesthesia for complex pediatric urological surgery.

BACKGROUND: Spinal anesthesia (SA) is an established anesthetic technique for short outpatient pediatric urological cases. To avoid general anesthesia (GA) and expand regional anesthetics to longer and more complex pediatric surgeries, the authors began a program using a combined spinal/caudal catheter (SCC) technique. STUDY DESIGN: The authors retrospectively reviewed the charts of all patients scheduled for surgery under SCC between December 2016 and April 2018 and recorded age, gender, diagnosis, procedure, conversion to GA/airway intervention, operative time, neuraxial and intravenous medications administered, complications, and outcomes. The SCC technique typically involved an initial intrathecal injection of 0.5% isobaric bupivacaine followed by placement of a caudal epidural catheter. At the discretion of the anesthesiologist, patients received 0.5 mg per kilogram of oral midazolam approximately 30 min prior to entering the operating room. One hour after the intrathecal injection, 3% chloroprocaine was administered via the caudal catheter to prolong the duration of surgical block. Intra-operative management included either continuous infusion or bolus dosing of dexmedetomidine, as needed, for patient comfort and to optimize surgical conditions. Prior to removal of caudal catheter in the post-anesthesia care unit, a supplemental bolus dose of local anesthesia was given through the catheter to provide prolonged post-operative analgesia. RESULTS: Overall, 23 children underwent attempted SCC. SA was unsuccessful in three patients, and surgery was performed under GA. The remaining 20 children all had successful SCC placement. There were 11 girls and nine boys, with a mean age of 16.5 months (3.3-43.8). Surgeries performed under SCC included seven ureteral reimplantations, two ureterocele excisions/reimplantations, two megaureter repairs, four first-stage hypospadias repairs, one distal hypospadias repair, one second-stage hypospadias repair, two feminizing genitoplasties, and one open pyeloplasty. Average length of surgery was 109 min (range 63-172 min). Pre-operative midazolam was given in 13/20 (65%). All SCC patients were spontaneously breathing room air during the operation, and there were no airway interventions. Only one SCC patient received opioids intra-operatively. There were no intra-operative or perioperative complications. DISCUSSION: This pilot study shows that the technique of SCC allows one to do more complex urologic surgery under regional anesthesia than what would be possible under pure SA alone. The main limitations of the study include the relatively small number of patients and the small median length of the operative procedures. As a proof of concept, however, this does show that complex genital surgery bladder level procedures such as ureteral reimplantation can be performed under regional anesthesia. CONCLUSION: SCC allows for more complex surgeries to be performed exclusively under regional anesthesia, thus obviating the need for airway intervention, minimizing or eliminating the use of opioids, and thus avoiding known and potential risks associated with GA. The latter is of particular importance given current concerns regarding hypothetical neurocognitive effects of GA on children aged below 3 years.

Caudal epidural blocks in paediatric patients: a review and practical considerations.

Caudal epidural blockade in children is one of the most widely administered techniques of regional anaesthesia. Recent clinical studies have answered major pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic questions, thus providing the scientific background for safe and effective blocks in daily clinical practice and demonstrating that patient selection can be expanded to range from extreme preterm births up to 50 kg of body weight. This narrative review discusses the main findings in the current literature with regard to patient selection (sub-umbilical vs mid-abdominal indications, contraindications, low-risk patients with spinal anomalies); anatomical considerations (access problems, age and body positioning, palpation for needle insertion); technical considerations (verification of needle position by ultrasound vs landmarks vs 'whoosh' or 'swoosh' testing); training and equipment requirements (learning curve, needle types, risk of tissue spreading); complications and safety (paediatric regional anaesthesia, caudal blocks); local anaesthetics (bupivacaine vs ropivacaine, risk of toxicity in children, management of toxic events); adjuvant drugs (clonidine, dexmedetomidine, opioids, ketamine); volume dosing (dermatomal reach, cranial rebound); caudally accessed lumbar or thoracic anaesthesia (contamination risk, verifying catheter placement); and postoperative pain. Caudal blocks are an efficient way to offer perioperative analgesia for painful sub-umbilical interventions. Performed on sedated children, they enable not only early ambulation, but also periprocedural haemodynamic stability and spontaneous breathing in patient groups at maximum risk of a difficult airway. These are important advantages over general anaesthesia, notably in preterm babies and in children with cardiopulmonary co-morbidities. Compared with other techniques of regional anaesthesia, a case for caudal blocks can still be made.

Does ultrasound guidance add accuracy to continuous caudal-epidural catheter placements in neonates and infants?

BACKGROUND: Caudo-lumbar and caudo-thoracic epidural anesthesia is an established technique that carries a low risk of dural puncture or spinal cord trauma in infants. Traditionally catheter advancement is based on external measurements. However, malpositioning of catheters are known to occur. We hypothesized that caudal-epidural catheters inserted under real-time ultrasound guidance may be more accurate than the accuracy of the measurements traditionally used for their placement. METHODS: We studied 25 patients, aged 2 days to 5 months, posted for abdominal or thoracic surgery, receiving general anesthesia followed by caudo-epidural continuous block. External measurement defined as the distance from the caudal space and the surgically congruent vertebral level was measured in centimeters with the back gently flexed. Subsequently, a caudo-epidural block was performed in the same position. The epidural catheter insertion was followed under real-time ultrasound guidance till the predetermined vertebral level was reached. The actual length placed under real-time ultrasound scan was defined as the actual length. The high-frequency probe was placed longitudinal and paramedian to the spine. The vertebral level was determined by identifying the lumbosacral junction in longitudinal saggital view and counting the vertebrae up from L5. The catheter length at the skin was compared with the length recorded by external measurement. RESULTS: The actual length placed under real-time ultrasound scan were consistently longer than the external distance between the caudal space and selected vertebral level. The mean values of ultrasound were higher than the mean values of external measurement with a difference of 4.28 cm. Accuracy was not affected by age or affected by the selected vertebral level in the age group we studied. CONCLUSION: We conclude that catheters placed under ultrasound guidance are more accurate than the traditional method developed before the advent of ultrasound in young infants.

Epidural insertion height for ureteric reimplant surgery; does location matter?

BACKGROUND: Surgical correction of vesicoureteric reflux through ureteric reimplantation is a common, highly successful treatment. Postoperative pain can be severe and may relate to somatic wound pain from the lower abdominal incision or from visceral bladder spasm pain. AIM: To conduct a prospective quality improvement audit to compare four perioperative analgesic techniques. METHODS: Observational data were collected on 217 patients following open ureteroneocystostomy over 5 days. The patients were split into four groups: (i) 'morphine' infusion; (ii) 'caudal'-single-shot caudal; (iii) 'epidural'-epidural catheter inserted at T10-L2 given a bolus, followed by an infusion of 0.125% bupivacaine with fentanyl 2 µg·ml(-1) ; (iv) 'caudal catheter'-caudal placed epidural catheter was treated similar to the epidural catheter. Data regarding postoperative analgesic interventions were recorded. Intravesical pethidine was used for bladder spasm pain and i.v. morphine for wound pain. RESULTS: Over the study period, the caudal catheter technique (mean interventions/patient = 1.8 ± 2.6) and the single-shot caudal (6.1 ± 4) needed significantly less bladder spasm interventions than morphine (9.2 ± 4) and epidural (8.0 ± 4.4) patients. For wound pain, the caudal catheter (8.8 ± 3.3) and epidural groups (11.4 ± 3.2) needed significantly less interventions than morphine (16.1 ± 3) and caudal (15.3 ± 3.3) patients. Overall, caudal catheter patients on average required about half the number of pain interventions and were associated with less high nursing workload. CONCLUSIONS: Despite some limitations in data collection and study design, the caudal catheter technique was superior at reducing pain interventions, particularly bladder spasm interventions. Overall epidural analgesia was not superior to a single-shot caudal followed by opioid infusion. The issue of bladder spasm may be similar to the phenomenon of sacral sparing in obstetric epidural anesthesia. Thus, regional techniques, such as caudal epidural, targeting a better balance between sacral and lumber nerves are required.

Successful use of ultrasound-guided caudal catheter in a child with a very low termination of dural sac and Opitz-GBBB syndrome: a case report.

We report a 2-year-old patient with Opitz-GBBB syndrome scheduled for a posterior sagittal anorectoplasty (PSARP). The ultrasound scan revealed the inferior end of dural sac just below sacrococcygeal membrane, although the patient had previously two successful caudal epidural blocks. Consequently, the epidural catheter was inserted under a real-time ultrasound guidance without dural puncture. Our patient had excellent pain relief without any side effects.

Fiabilidad técnica del bloqueo caudal guiado con ecografía / Technical reliability of caudal block with ultrasound guided

Introducción: el bloqueo-infiltración caudal es una técnica utilizada en las unidades de dolor para tratar el dolor de origen radicular lumbosacro. Esta técnica se ha realizado clásicamente mediante referencias anatómicas o guiado mediante fluoroscopia. Se presenta la realización de la técnica eco-guiada y las complicaciones surgidas tras la realización de la misma. Material y métodos: estudio observacional descriptivo en el que se estudiaron las complicaciones de la técnica. Se realizaron 126 procedimientos en pacientes adultos de ambos sexos. Procedimiento: se localizó el hiato sacro mediante ecografía y se insertó una aguja de Touhy 18 G en el espacio epidural caudal perforando el ligamento sacro-coccígeo. Resultados: no surgieron complicaciones graves en ninguno de los pacientes. No hubo casos de mala ventana ecográfica por lo que se pudo realizar la técnica en todos los enfermos programados. Conclusión: debido a la ausencia de complicaciones la realización de la técnica eco-guiada es una alternativa segura y fiable a la técnica guiada con fluoroscopia. Mediante esta técnica se evita la exposición de radiaciones ionizantes. Además el bloqueo caudal eco-guiado no necesita del uso de contrastes yodados y permite transportar el ecógrafo a la cabecera del enfermo en caso de ser necesario (AU)

Introduction: Caudal block is a procedure used to treat lumbo- sacral root pain. This procedure has traditionally been realized using anatomy references or guided by fluoroscopy. The realization of sonography-guided technique and complications following the embodiment there of is presented Material and methods: Observational and descriptive study in which is studied procedure complications. One hundred and twenty-six caudal blocks were performed in adult patients of both sexes. Procedure: The sacral hiatus was located by ultrasound and 18 G Tuohy needle was inserted into the epidural space flow drilling the sacro-coccygeal ligament. Results: There were no serious complications arose in any of the patients. There were no cases of poor ultrasound window so they could perform the technique on all scheduled patients. Conclusions: The procedure sonography-guided is safe and reliable due to the absence of complications and is an alternative to flouoroscopy-guided technique. This technique of ionizing radiation exposure is avoided. In addition the caudal block does not need ionized contrast substances and let take the sonography machine bedsides if necessary (AU)

Epidural catheter design: history, innovations, and clinical implications.

Epidural catheters have evolved during the past several decades, as clinicians and manufacturers have sought to influence the quality of analgesia and anesthesia and reduce the incidence of catheter-related complications. This evolution has allowed a transformation from single-shot to continuous-infusion techniques and resulted in easier passage into the epidural space, more extensive medication distribution, and ultimately, improved patient satisfaction. Particular catheter features, including the materials used, tip design, and orifice number and arrangement, have been associated with specific outcomes and provide direction for future development.

Lesiones del ganglio dorsal por radiofrecuencia pulsada a través del espacio epidural / No disponible

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Bloqueo caudal en dolor crónico lumbar. ¿Es necesario el apoyo radiológico para disminuir los fallos de la técnica? / No disponible

Introducción: las infiltraciones de esteroides epidurales no ofrecen beneficio a largo plazo en el tratamiento del dolor de espalda, pero pueden ser eficaces en los pacientes con dolor radicular lumbosacro agudo. Los bloqueos epidurales vía caudal de esteroides son eficaces en el alivio sintomático a corto plazo (evidencia de nivel II), así como a largo plazo (nivel de evidencia III). Objetivos: evaluar la eficacia del bloqueo caudal con y sin guía fluoroscópica. Material y métodos: estudio prospectivo, observacional y descriptivo para evaluar la tasa de fallos de la realización del bloqueo caudal mediante la técnica "a ciegas" respecto a la guiada por radiología. El análisis estadístico incluyó chi2 de Mantel y Haensel, t de Student y test ANOVA, considerándose una p < 0,05 con significación estadística. Resultados: se realizaron 129 bloqueos epidurales caudales en 89 pacientes por cuadros de dolor crónico. La tasa global de éxito del bloqueo caudal con la técnica a ciegas fue de un 65,11%. Existen diferencias estadísticamente significativas en la tasa de fallos de la técnica a ciegas para las variables: experiencia profesional del médico anestesiólogo y la presencia de obesidad. La mal posición más frecuente en nuestra cohorte es la colocación subcutánea de la aguja, que representa un 80% de los casos (36/45). Conclusiones: recomendamos el uso de la visión radiológica para realizar los bloqueos epidurales caudales (AU)

Introduction: epidural steroid injections offer no longterm benefit for the treatment of low back pain but may be effective in the small subset of patients with acute lumbosacral radicular pain. Caudal epidural steroid injection was effective in producing short-term improvement (level II evidence) as well as long-term relief (level III evidence). Objetives: to evaluate of the effectiveness of the caudal epidural block under fluoroscopic guidance. Material and methods: prospective, observational and descriptive study to assess the failure rates of caudal block using the technique "blind" with respect to radiological vision. Statistical comparisons were based on the chi2 test, the long-rank test, t test and ANOVA test, considering a statistically significant result p < 0.05. Results: we performed 129 caudal epidural blocks in 89 patients for chronic pain conditions. The overall success rate of caudal block with a blind technique was of 65.11%. Statistically significant differences in the rate of technical failure of the blind for the variables professional experience of the anesthesiologist and the presence of obesity. The most common malposition in our cohort is the subcutaneous placement of the needle. Conclusions: we recommend the use of radiological vision to perform the epidural caudal procedures (AU)

Diseminación tumoral perioperatoria. 1. Influencia de los factores perioperatorios / Perioperative tumour dissemination. 1. Influence of perioperative factors

En los últimos años existe una creciente preocupación acerca del efecto que los fármacos anestésicos utilizados durante una cirugía oncológica pueden tener sobre la progresión tumoral a largo plazo, así como de la influencia de otros factores perioperatorios. Aunque muchos de los datos de que disponemos tienen evidencia débil, se ha valorado en diversos estudios el papel de la propia cirugía, del dolor, de la trasfusión de derivados sanguíneos, etc. Se ha observado en estudios de laboratorio cómo algunas sustancias utilizadas durante un proceso anestésico influyen en la inmunovigilancia tumoral, la proliferación celular o los procesos de angiogénesis tumoral. La posible relevancia clínica de la técnica anestésica utilizada respecto a la progresión tumoral a largo plazo y la supervivencia está aún por determinar. Sin embargo, según estudios retrospectivos, parece que aquellas técnicas anestésicas combinadas con la utilización de anestesia y analgesia regional pueden resultar beneficiosas respecto a aquellas que se sustentan en la utilización de opioides. Futuras investigaciones deben ayudar a esclarecer la relevancia clínica a largo plazo de los procedimientos perioperatorios, incluyendo el anestésico, durante una cirugía oncológica(AU)

There has been growing concern in the last few years on the effect of anaesthetic drugs used during oncological surgery could have on tumour progression in the long-term, as well as the influence of other perioperative factors. Although much of the available data has weak evidence, the role of the surgery itself, pain, transfusion of blood derivatives, etc., have been assessed in several studies. How some substances used during the anaesthetic process can influence tumour immune surveillance, cell proliferation or tumour angiogenesis processes have been observed in laboratory studies. The possible relevance of the anaesthetic technique used as regards the long-term tumour progression and survival is still to be determined. However, based on retrospective studies, it seems that those anaesthetic techniques combined with the use of regional anaesthesia and analgesia could be beneficial compared to those that are maintained on opioid use. Further research should help to elucidate the long-term clinical relevance of the perioperative procedures, including the anaesthetic, during oncological surgery(AU)

Infiltración del ganglio impar y caudal en el manejo de la coccigodinia traumática rebelde al tratamiento analgésico convencional / Infiltration of ganglion impar and caudal in the management of traumatic coccydynia refractory to conventional analgesic treatment

Introducción. La coccigodinia es un término referido al dolor en la región del cóccix. La mayor parte de casos se asocian a una movilidad anormal del cóccix que puede provocar un proceso crónico inflamatorio que conduce a la degeneración de esta estructura. El tratamiento conservador debe ser de elección en este cuadro, y puede consistir en terapias manuales (masajes, estiramiento, manipulación y postural) inyecciones locales de esteroides o anestésicos. Material y métodos. Estudio retrospectivo de una cohorte histórica de 23 pacientes con clínica de coccigodinia traumática sin respuesta a tratamiento médico. Se trataron con infiltración del ganglio impar y/o bloqueo caudal con lidocaina 1% y triancinolona 60-80mg bajo control radioscópico. De estos 23 pacientes, 21 estaban disponibles y completaron un cuestionario de evaluación del efecto de la infiltración del ganglio impar el bloque y/o el bloque caudal. Resultados. Se consideraron excelentes los resultados obtenidos en 16 de los 21 pacientes con coccigodinia traumática. En cinco pacientes los resultados eran moderados o pobres, aunque ninguno describiera aumento o empeoramiento del dolor después de las infiltraciones. El procedimiento no se asoció a complicaciones mayores. Conclusión. El bloqueo del ganglio impar y/o el bloqueo caudal conllevó un control del dolor coccígeo en la mayoría de pacientes (AU)

Introduction. Coccydynia is a term that refers to pain in the region of the coccyx. Most cases are associated with abnormal mobility of the coccyx which may trigger a chronic inflammatory process leading to degeneration of this structure. Non-surgical management remains the gold standard treatment for coccydynia, consisting of decreased sitting, seat cushioning, coccygeal massage, stretching, manipulation, local injection of steroids or anaesthetics, and postural adjustments. Material and methods. A retrospective study of 23 patients who underwent treatment for coccydynia and failed to respond to conservative management. They were treated by radiologically guided infiltration of the ganglion blockade impar and/or caudal blockade with 1% lidocaine 60-80mg triamcinolone. Of these 23 patients, 21 were available for clinical review and completed a questionnaire giving their assessment of the effect of the infiltration of the ganglion impar block and/or caudal block. Results. Good results were obtained in 16 of the 21 patients with coccydynia due to trauma. In five patients the results were moderate or poor, although none described worse pain after the operation. They are no complications after the infiltration. Conclusion. Ganglion impar block and/or caudal block offered satisfactory relief of pain in the majority of patients regardless of the cause of their symptoms (AU)

Inyección de fibrina epidural como tratamiento conservador de la fuga persistente de líquido cefalorraquídeo tras cateterización intratecal / No disponible

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Fístula de líquido cefalorraquídeo tras implante de electrodos por vía caudal para estimulación sacra, en una enferma con proctalgia crónica / No disponible

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Incidence of self-limiting back pain in children following caudal blockade: an exploratory study.

BACKGROUND: Currently, in pediatric anesthesia, there is no evidence-based information available to pediatric patients and their parents regarding the incidence of back pain after neuraxial injections performed for postoperative analgesia. Back pain postepidural blockade has been reported in numerous studies with adult patients; however, it has not been investigated in children. The main objective of this study is to examine the incidence of back pain symptoms after caudal blockade (early and late onset) in children. METHODS: Patients under the age of 18 years, who received caudal blockade at the Montreal Children's Hospital between July 2006 and December 2008 were recruited in this prospective observational study. Back pain was measured prospectively by patient self-report and parental observation during the 15-day postoperative period. Patients, or their parents, were contacted by phone on postoperative day 2 (POD2) and postoperative day 15 (POD15) to answer a seven-item symptom questionnaire. RESULTS: In a sample of 135 children, the incidence of back pain symptoms was 4.7% and 1.1% on POD2 and POD15, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study provide support that transient self-limiting back pain after caudal blockade does occur in pediatric patients. Clinically, this is useful information for physicians to provide to their patients. An exploration of factors that may be associated with back pain following caudal blockade in children is an interesting area of future research.

“Posición Vallejo” para la anestesia espinal difícil / The Vallejo position for difficult spinal anesthesia

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[Sacral anesthesia, perspectives today].

The paper summarizes the experience of Russian and foreign specialists in dealing with the theoretical and practical aspects of sacral anesthesia. It presents anatomic data and information on the pathophysiological aspects and potentialities of clinical use of sacral anesthesia in modern anesthesiological practice that estimate its perspectives at this stage.